I. Doctrine of Basic Structure & Constitutional Supremacy
1. Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973)
This historic judgment laid down the Basic Structure Doctrine, holding that while Parliament has wide powers to amend the Constitution under Article 368, it cannot alter or destroy its basic structure. The Court identified features such as supremacy of the Constitution, rule of law, judicial review, federalism, and separation of powers as inviolable. This case marked a permanent limitation on parliamentary sovereignty.
2. Minerva Mills Ltd. v. Union of India (1980)
The Supreme Court struck down parts of the 42nd Constitutional Amendment that sought to exclude judicial review and give absolute primacy to Directive Principles over Fundamental Rights. It held that harmony and balance between Fundamental Rights and DPSPs is itself part of the basic structure. Unlimited amending power was declared unconstitutional.
3. Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975)
The Court invalidated constitutional provisions that sought to immunize the election of the Prime Minister from judicial review. It held that free and fair elections, rule of law, and equality before law are part of the basic structure. Parliament cannot place itself above judicial scrutiny.
4. I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu (2007)
The Supreme Court ruled that laws placed in the Ninth Schedule after 24 April 1973 are subject to judicial review if they violate the basic structure. This judgment reinforced constitutional supremacy and prevented misuse of the Ninth Schedule to shield unconstitutional laws.
5. State of Rajasthan v. Union of India (1977)
The Court examined the scope of Article 356 and held that the President’s satisfaction is not absolute and is subject to limited judicial review. This case laid the foundation for controlling arbitrary imposition of President’s Rule in states.
II. Evolution of Fundamental Rights Jurisprudence
6. A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950)
The Court adopted a narrow interpretation of Article 21, holding that “procedure established by law” meant any procedure enacted by the legislature, even if arbitrary. Fundamental Rights were treated as isolated and independent. This approach was later overruled.
7. Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978)
This case revolutionized constitutional interpretation by holding that the procedure under Article 21 must be just, fair, and reasonable. The Court linked Articles 14, 19, and 21, introducing substantive due process into Indian constitutional law and greatly expanding personal liberty.
8. R.C. Cooper v. Union of India (1970)
Also known as the Bank Nationalisation Case, the Court rejected the object test and adopted the impact doctrine, holding that state action must be examined based on its effect on Fundamental Rights. This case dismantled the restrictive Gopalan approach.
9. Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017)
A nine-judge bench unanimously recognized the right to privacy as a fundamental right under Article 21 and other freedoms. The judgment emphasized dignity, autonomy, and informational privacy, shaping future debates on data protection and surveillance.
10. ADM Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla (1976)
The Court held that during the Emergency, the right to approach courts for enforcement of Article 21 could be suspended. This judgment is regarded as a constitutional failure and was expressly overruled in Puttaswamy, restoring faith in fundamental liberties.
III. Right to Equality (Articles 14, 15 & 16)
11. E.P. Royappa v. State of Tamil Nadu (1974)
The Court transformed Article 14 by holding that equality is antithetical to arbitrariness. Any arbitrary state action violates equality, even without formal discrimination.
12. State of West Bengal v. Anwar Ali Sarkar (1952)
The Court formulated the doctrine of reasonable classification, requiring intelligible differentia and a rational nexus between classification and legislative objective.
13. Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992)
This landmark reservation case upheld 27% OBC reservation while introducing safeguards such as the 50% ceiling, exclusion of the creamy layer, and prohibition of reservation in promotions (later modified by constitutional amendments).
14. M. Nagaraj v. Union of India (2006)
The Court upheld reservation in promotion for SC/STs but mandated that states must demonstrate backwardness, inadequate representation, and efficiency of administration before granting such reservations.
IV. Freedom of Speech & Expression (Article 19)
15. Romesh Thappar v. State of Madras (1950)
The Court recognized freedom of the press as an essential part of Article 19(1)(a) and struck down pre-censorship not falling within permissible restrictions.
16. Bennett Coleman v. Union of India (1973)
The Court held that restrictions on newspaper circulation and page limits indirectly restrict freedom of speech and are unconstitutional.
17. Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015)
Section 66A of the IT Act was struck down for vagueness and chilling effect on free speech. The Court distinguished between discussion, advocacy, and incitement.
18. S. Rangarajan v. P. Jagjivan Ram (1989)
The Court held that freedom of expression cannot be curtailed unless it poses a clear and present danger to public order.
19. Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018)
The Court decriminalized consensual homosexual relations, holding Section 377 violative of dignity, equality, and privacy.
V. Right to Life & Personal Liberty (Article 21)
20. Francis Coralie Mullin v. UT of Delhi (1981)
The Court expanded Article 21 to include the right to live with human dignity, encompassing basic necessities of life.
21. Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation (1985)
The Court recognized the right to livelihood as part of Article 21, though eviction was permitted following due process.
22. Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration (1978)
The Court protected prisoners’ rights, holding that incarceration does not strip individuals of fundamental rights.
23. Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar (1979)
The Court recognized the right to speedy trial, addressing prolonged detention of undertrial prisoners.
24. Common Cause v. Union of India (2018)
The Court recognized passive euthanasia and the right to die with dignity, subject to safeguards.
VI. Directive Principles & Socio-Economic Rights
25. Champakam Dorairajan v. State of Madras (1951)
The Court held that Fundamental Rights prevail over Directive Principles, leading to the First Constitutional Amendment.
26. Golaknath v. State of Punjab (1967)
The Court ruled that Parliament cannot amend Fundamental Rights, later overruled in Kesavananda Bharati.
27. Mohini Jain v. State of Karnataka (1992)
The Court held education to be a fundamental right and prohibited capitation fees.
28. Unni Krishnan v. State of Andhra Pradesh (1993)
The Court refined the right to education under Article 21, leading to Article 21A.
29. Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity v. State of WB (1996)
The Court recognized right to health and emergency medical care as part of Article 21.
VII. Federalism & Centre–State Relations
30. S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994)
The Court restricted misuse of Article 356 and declared secularism a part of the basic structure.
31. State of West Bengal v. Union of India (1963)
The Court held that states do not possess separate sovereignty under the Indian Constitution.
32. Hoechst Pharmaceuticals v. State of Bihar (1983)
The Court clarified the doctrine of repugnancy under Article 254 between central and state laws.
VIII. Judiciary, Judicial Review & Appointments
33. L. Chandra Kumar v. Union of India (1997)
Judicial review under Articles 226 and 32 was declared part of the basic structure.
34. Supreme Court Advocates-on-Record Association v. Union of India (2015)
The NJAC was struck down for violating judicial independence.
35. Second Judges Case (1993)
The Court established the collegium system for judicial appointments.
36. Third Judges Case (1998)
The Court clarified the composition and functioning of the collegium.
IX. Elections, Democracy & Governance
37. ADR v. Union of India (2002)
Candidates were mandated to disclose criminal antecedents, assets, and education.
38. PUCL v. Union of India (2003)
The voters’ right to know was recognized as part of freedom of speech.
39. Lily Thomas v. Union of India (2013)
Immediate disqualification of convicted legislators was mandated.
40. Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu (1992)
The Anti-Defection Law was upheld, subject to judicial review.
X. Secularism, Religion & Conscience
41. Shah Bano v. Union of India (1985)
The Court upheld the right of Muslim women to maintenance under Section 125 CrPC.
42. Bijoe Emmanuel v. State of Kerala (1986)
Freedom of conscience was upheld; students cannot be compelled to sing the national anthem.
XI. Environment, PIL & Rule of Law
43. M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak Case)
The Court introduced the principle of absolute liability for hazardous industries.
44. Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996)
The Court recognized sustainable development and the precautionary principle.
45. Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar (1991)
The Court recognized the right to a pollution-free environment under Article 21.
46. Vineet Narain v. Union of India (1998)
The Court strengthened the independence of investigative agencies and reinforced the rule of law.
